Lo que dice el Dr.Kurzweil es lo siguiente:
El progreso tecnológico de cada década va a ser el doble de rápido que la anterior, así que si comparamos la década 2001-2011 con la ultima del siglo XX, 1991-2001, sera el doble. LA década 2011-2021 el doble que la de 2001-2011, 4 veces la de 1991-2001
2001-2011 2x Respecto 1991-2001
2011-2021 4x Respecto 1991-2001
2021-2031 8x Respecto 1991-2001
2031-2041 16x Respecto 1991-2001
2041-2051 32x Respecto 1991-2001
2051-2061 64x Respecto 1991-2001
2061-2071 128x Respecto 1991-2001
2071-2081 256x Respecto 1991-2001
2081-2091 512x Respecto 1991-2001
2091-2101 1024x Respecto 1991-2001
Con un total de 2.000x en todo el siglo respecto a la ultima década del siglo XX. Eso es los mismo que decir que durante el siglo XXI se avanzara tanto como en 20.000 años con la misma velocidad de progreso que en el siglo XX. Imagínate lo que podríamos tener en el año 22.000, y es lo mismo que piensa Ray Kurzweil que tendremos en el 2100.
Saludos
Whale Genes Offer Hints to Longer Life Spans
by Becky Oskin, Senior Writer
In a search for genes that fight off aging, researchers have now charted the bowhead whale genome.
Bowheads are filter feeders found only in the Arctic, and are some of the largest mammals on Earth. Old harpoon points found in bowheads suggest the whales live for some 200 years.
The scientists' search turned up several interesting genetic targets worthy of further study, said senior study author Joao Pedro de Magalhaes, a biologist and expert in aging science at the University of Liverpool in the United Kingdom. The results will be reported Tuesday (Jan. 6) in the journal Cell.
For instance, the researchers found that bowhead whales have unique mutations in a gene called ERCC1, which is involved in repairing damaged DNA. The mutations in this gene could provide protection against cancer, Magalhaes said. About 30 percent of people will develop some form of cancer during their lives, but whales seem to have a remarkably low cancer rate, despite their huge number of cells and long life span.
But not all genetic changes in whales are cancer related. The researchers also found that a gene called PCNA contains a section of DNA that has been duplicated. The gene is associated with cell growth and DNA repair, and the duplication could slow aging, Magalhaes said.
In a previous study of deep-diving Minke whales, researchers reported that genetic mutations involved in stress may help undo the damage caused when cells go without oxygen for long periods of time.
In the new study, the team found that bowhead whales are also missing a big chunk of a gene called UCP1, which helps control body temperature, Magalhaes noted. With all of the new genetic data, "there are other traits you can study, not just longevity," he said. [Whale Album: Giants of the Deep]
Magalhaes said he hopes to ultimately prolong human life by studying the genetic code of long-lived mammals other than humans, such as the bowhead whale and the disease-resistant naked mole rat.
"My own view is that different long-lived species use different tricks to evolve long life spans, and there aren't many genes in common," he said. "But you do find some common pathways, so there may be common patterns," Magalhaes told Live Science. "Looking at mechanisms that protect against disease is a really unexplored area of research."
The bowhead whale genome was sequenced using tissue collected from whales killed during the limited hunts allowed in Alaska and Greenland, the researchers reported. The whales are listed as endangered species in the United States and many other countries.
The team also examined the animals' transcriptome: how genes were expressed in major organs, including the heart, liver, brain, kidney, muscle, retina and testis.
All of the genomic data will be freely available online, Magalhaes said.
Fully grown bowhead whales are between 46 and 65 feet (14 and 20 meters) long. About one-third of that length comes their enormous heads and baleen-filled mouths. The baleen is a bristly structure that traps tons of tiny sea creatures each day, such as copepods and zooplankton.
Bowheads were commercially hunted until a global moratorium on whaling was established in 1996. There are an estimated 10,000 bowhead whales worldwide, up from about 3,000 when hunting peaked in the 1920s, according to the National Marine Fisheries Services.
Follow Becky Oskin @beckyoskin. Follow LiveScience @livescience,Facebook & Google+. Originally published on Live Science.
Nanotubos de carbono como canales iónicos artificiales
Un estudio en el que ha participado el grupo de Nanomecánica de Membranas liderado por el profesor Ikerbasque Dr. Vadim Frolov en la Unidad de Biofísica de la UPV/EHU, sugiere que los nanotubos de carbono de pared simple podrían ser utilizados como andamio universal para ayudar a replicar las propiedades de los canales de las membranas celulares. Los resultados del estudio han sido publicados en Nature.
Estos canales artificiales podrían tener importantes usos bioingeniría en futuros tratamientos médicos: podrían usarse para el suministro específico y muy controlado de medicamentos, servir como base de una nueva generación de biosensores, de sistemas mejorados de secuenciación del ADN y como componentes de células artificiales.
Las membranas biológicas definen la arquitectura funcional de los sistemas vivos: son selectivamente permeables, mantienen la identidad química de las células y orgánulos intracelulares y regulan el intercambio de material entre ellos. El control del transporte de iones y pequeñas moléculas a través de las membranas celulares lo realizan proteínas altamente especializadas que canalizan estas moléculas a través de la membrana. Los recientes avances en nanotecnología y nanofabricación han permitido la síntesis y fabricación de compuestos artificiales destinados a cumplir las funciones de los canales transmembrana y de los transportadores. El comportamiento de estos compuestos artificiales es cada vez más parecido al de las proteínas celulares en sus características básicas: selectividad molecular, direccionamiento hacia la membrana y eficiencia del transporte. Sin embargo, todavía sigue siendo un reto crear un prototipo universal y versátil para fabricar canales con determinadas propiedades de transporte.
El estudio en el que ha participado el grupo del Dr. Vadim Frolov, profesor investigador Ikerbasque de la Unidad de Biofísica de la UPV/EHU, y dirigido por el Dr. Alex Noy de Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories (EE. UU.), sugiere que los nanotubos de carbono de pared simple (CNT) pueden utilizarse como estructura con propiedades similares de afinidad y de transporte que los canales proteicos. Los nanotubos son transportadores muy eficientes, debido a que su estrecho diámetro (de 1 nm aproximadamente) e interior hidrofóbico es muy similar a la estructura funcional general general de dichas proteínas.
Los investigadores han descubierto que los CNTs ultracortos cubiertos por moléculas de lípidos forman canales tanto en membranas artificiales como en las membranas de células vivas. Estas estructuras se mantienen estables en disolución y se insertan espontáneamente en las membranas. Asimismo, los investigadores han observado que los CNTs insertados en una membrana contienen propiedades de transporte comparables a las de los canales iónicos pequeños. Además, han evidenciado que tales CNTs también son capaces de transportar ADN.
Según explica Frolov, los mecanismos de transporte transmembrana mediante CNTs ultracortos requieren una investigación más extensa, por lo que el proyecto de colaboración entre los grupos de Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories y de la UPV/EHU no ha concluido todavía. Los científicos esperan que mediante modificaciones químicas sofisticadas, la optimización de los procesos de producción y la utilización de otros métodos de nanofabricación, puedan llegar a producir canales iónicos plenamente funcionales basados en CNTs ultracortos.
Referencia:
J. Geng, K. Kim, J. Zhang, A. Escalada, R. Tunuguntla, Luis R. Comolli, Frances I. Allen, Anna V. Shnyrova, Kang Rae Cho, D. Munoz, Y. MorrisWang, Costas P. Grigoropoulos, Caroline M. Ajo-Franklin, Vadim A. Frolov & A. Noy. Stochastic transport through carbon nanotubes in lipid bilayers and live cell membranes. Nature, 30 october 2014, Vol. 514. DOI: 10.1038/nature13817
Edición realizada por César Tomé López a partir de materiales suministrados por UPV/EHU Komunikazioa
Artificial wombs: The coming era of motherless births
Scientifically, it’s calledectogenesis, a termcoined by J.B.S. Haldane in 1924. A hugely influential science popularizer, Haldane did for his generation what Carl Sagan did later in the century. He got people thinking and talking about the implications of science and technology on our civilization, and did not shy away from inventing new words in order to do so. Describing ectogenesis as pregnancy occurring in an artificial environment, from fertilization to birth, Haldane predicted that by 2074 this would account for more than 70 percent of human births.
His prediction may yet be on target.
In discussing the idea in his work Daedalus–a reference to the inventor in Greek mythology who, through his inventions, strived to bring humans to the level of the gods–Haldane was diving into issues of his time, namely eugenics and the first widespread debates over contraception and population control.
Whether Haldane’s view will prove correct about the specific timing of when ectogenesis might become popular, or the numbers of children born that way, it’s certain that he was correct that tAt the same time, he was right that the societal implications are sure to be significant as the age of motherless birth approaches. They will not be the same societal implications that were highlighted in Daedalus, however.
Technology developing in increments
Where are we on the road to ectogenesis right now? To begin, progress has definitely been rapid over the last 20-30 years. In the mid 1990s, Japanese investigators succeeded in maintaining goat fetuses for weeks in a machine containing artificial amniotic fluid. At the same time, the recent decades have seen rapid advancement in neonatal intensive care that is pushing back the minimum gestational age from which human fetuses can be kept alive. Today, it is possible for a preterm fetus to survive when removed from the mother at a gestational age of slightly less than 22 weeks. That’s only a little more than halfway through the pregnancy (normally 40 weeks). And while rescuing an infant delivered at such an early point requires sophisticated, expensive equipment and care, the capability continues to increase.
A comprehensive review published by the New York Academy of Sciencesthree years ago highlights a series of achievements by various research groups using ex vivo (out of the body) uterus environments to support mammalian fetuses early in pregnancy. Essentially, two areas of biotechnology are developing rapidly that potentially can enable ectogenesis in humans, and, along the way, what the authors of the Academy review callpartial ectogenesis.
Because a fetus develops substantially with respect to external form and internal organs during the second half of pregnancy, our current capability to deliver and maintain preterm infants actually is a kind of partial ectogenesis. Supported by all of the equipment in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), a premature infant continues its development as a normal fetus of the same gestational age would do inside the mother’s uterus, but with one important exception. Inside the womb, oxygenated, nourished blood comes in, and blood carrying waste goes out, through the placenta and umbilical cord. Once delivered, however, a preemie must breathe through its lungs, cleanse the blood with its liver and kidneys, and get nutrition through its gastrointestinal tract.
But because these organ systems, especially the lungs, are not really ready to do their job so early, there is a limit to how early a developing fetus can be transferred from womb to NICU. Known as viability, the limit definitely has been pushed back with special treatments given to the mother prior to delivery and, just after birth, directly into the preemie’s lungs, and with intensive support. But the 22 week gestational age may be around the absolute limit for survival for a fetus that will have to depend on lung-breathing, not to mention other organs, rather than its mother’s nourished blood.
Still, the capability to push back the limit is around the corner. One of the two developing key technologies is the artificial amniotic fluid filled environment that has continued to develop with laboratory animal models since the work with goats in the 1990s. The other area is embryo transfer. Not only can a developing mammal be transferred from the uterus of its own mother to that of a surrogate, but gradually investigators are reproducing the endometrium–the cell layer of the uterus that contains and nourishes the pregnancy–as a cell culture, or an in vitro model. The convergence of these technologies will make it possible to transfer a developing human into a system that includes the placenta and umbilical cord and supplies all consumables (oxygen and food), and removes all waste, directly through the blood.
Thus, survival and continuing development would not depend on the lungs and other organs being ready yet to do their job. Applying such a system to fetus delivered in the middle of pregnancy would constitute real partial ectogenesis. Furthermore, since bypassing the developing, not fully functional organs, stands to improve survival substantially, and might even decrease the costs of extreme premature birth, the movement of the technology from research to clinic is inevitable.
Once that happens, there will be no obstacle against pushing the limit further, toward full ectogenesis. But there will be no obstacle to pushing the limit akin to how lung viability has placed an obstacle to conventional pre-term care. At some point, an in vitro fertilized egg could be planted directly into the artificial womb, with no need for a natural uterus even for the early stages.
Societal implications
An artificial womb may sound futuristic, and in Haldane’s time this may have supported a perception that realizing the technology would go together with controlling the birth rate and eugenics controlling which humans come to life, and thus which genetic traits get passed down to future populations. But today, we could do these things without ectogenesis. We have plenty of contraceptive methods and can sterilize people, or make them more fertile, while pregnancies can be induced with implanted embryos made with in vitro fertilization.
If anyone is working on a eugenics program at present, they can use surrogate mothers and don’t really require an artificial uterus–unless, we imagine a society that routinely, forcefully sterilizes all females, so that whoever has the artificial uterus has a monopoly on reproduction, ectogenesis does not relate particularly to those 1920s issues. Instead, the artificial uterus would simply move the pregnancy outside of the woman’s body. When considering societal consequences, that’s the main factor that we need to keep in mind, and doing so we see that it does relate to many currently controversial issues.
Considering abortion, for instance, while the proposition that a fetus, even an embryo, is a person with a “right to life” is a religious belief that cannot be imposed on everyone else, the main argument for the right to choose is a woman’s right to control her body. If a developing embryo or fetus is not viable and the mother wants it out of her uterus, that’s her right.
But what happens once we have the technology to remove it from her without killing it and let the pregnancy continue in an artificial womb? Already, with NICU technology pushing back the survival limit, the timing of viability affecting the legality of abortion, has been challenged by abortion foes. The prospect of ectogenesis stands to turn the viability issue on its face, and it will be interesting to see where that leads.
While social conservatives might be receptive about what an artificial uterus might do to the abortion paradigm, make no mistake they’d probably not be happy that the technology also stands to make it much easier for male gay couples to have babies. All they’d need is an egg donor; no more need for a surrogate mother to take the embryo into her uterus and carry it for 40 weeks. That’s easier for any gay couple in terms of practicality, waiting periods, and money. The same thing goes for a transgender person wishing to have a child.
Finally, because of the sheer numbers, the artificial uterus could have major implications for heterosexual women with fully functional uteri. Many who want children of their own might prefer to forego pregnancy yet would hesitate to hire a human surrogate. Not only is it expensive, but the surrogate could grow fond of the fetus she’s carrying, so why bother taking the risk?
On the other hand, the mind set could be quite different if the surrogate were a high tech jar. It’s your baby with no worries about competing mothers. I’m not suggesting that all potential mothers would opt for this, but Haldane’s guess might not be so unrealistic in that it might end up being a substantial fraction of the population.
David Warmflash is an astrobiologist, physician and science writer. Follow @CosmicEvolution to read what he is saying on Twitter.
Drug perks up old muscles and aging brains
By Robert Sanders, Media Relations | May , 2015
BERKELEY —
Whether you’re brainy, brawny or both, you may someday benefit from a drug found to rejuvenate aging brain and muscle tissue.
Images of cells in the brain’s hippocampus show that the growth factor TGF-beta1 (stained red) is barely present in young tissue but ubiquitous in old tissue, where it suppresses stem cell regeneration and contributes to aging.
Researchers at UC Berkeley have discovered that a small-molecule drug simultaneously perks up old stem cells in the brains and muscles of mice, a finding that could lead to drug interventions for humans that would make aging tissues throughout the body act young again.
“We established that you can use a single small molecule to rescue essential function in not only aged brain tissue but aged muscle,” said co-author David Schaffer, director of the Berkeley Stem Cell Center and a professor of chemical and biomolecular engineering. “That is good news, because if every tissue had a different molecular mechanism for aging, we wouldn’t be able to have a single intervention that rescues the function of multiple tissues.”
The drug interferes with the activity of a growth factor, transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-beta1), that Schaffer’s UC Berkeley colleague Irina Conboy showed over the past 10 years depresses the ability of various types of stem cells to renew tissue.
“Based on our earlier papers, the TGF-beta1 pathway seemed to be one of the main culprits in multi-tissue aging,” said Conboy, an associate professor of bioengineering. “That one protein, when upregulated, ages multiple stem cells in distinct organs, such as the brain, pancreas, heart and muscle. This is really the first demonstration that we can find a drug that makes the key TGF-beta1 pathway, which is elevated by aging, behave younger, thereby rejuvenating multiple organ systems.”
The UC Berkeley team reported its results in the current issue of the journal Oncotarget. Conboy and Schaffer are members of a consortium of faculty who study aging within the California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences (QB3).
Depressed stem cells lead to aging
Aging is ascribed, in part, to the failure of adult stem cells to generate replacements for damaged cells and thus repair the body’s tissues. Researchers have shown that this decreased stem cell activity is largely a result of inhibitory chemicals in the environment around the stem cell, some of them dumped there by the immune system as a result of chronic, low-level inflammation that is also a hallmark of aging.
In 2005, Conboy and her colleagues infused old mice with blood from young mice – a process called parabiosis – reinvigorating stem cells in the muscle, liver and brain/hippocampus and showing that the chemicals in young blood can actually rejuvenate the chemical environment of aging stem cells. Last year, doctors began a small trial to determine whether blood plasma from young people can help reverse brain damage in elderly Alzheimer’s patients.
Such therapies are impractical if not dangerous, however, so Conboy, Schaffer and others are trying to track down the specific chemicals that can be used safely and sustainably for maintaining the youthful environment for stem cells in many organs. One key chemical target for the multi-tissue rejuvenation is TGF-beta1, which tends to increase with age in all tissues of the body and which Conboy showed depresses stem cell activity when present at high levels.
Five years ago, Schaffer, who studies neural stem cells in the brain, teamed up with Conboy to look at TGF-beta1 activity in the hippocampus, an area of the brain important in memory and learning. Among the hallmarks of aging are a decline in learning, cognition and memory. In the new study, they showed that in old mice, the hippocampus has increased levels of TGF-beta1 similar to the levels in the bloodstream and other old tissue.
Drug makes old tissue cleverer
Microglia in the young brain (top) show little TGF-beta1,(green) as opposed to old brain (bottom).
The team then injected into the blood a chemical known to block the TGF-beta1 receptor and thus reduce the effect of TGF-beta1. This small molecule, an Alk5 kinase inhibitor already undergoing trials as an anticancer agent, successfully renewed stem cell function in both brain and muscle tissue of the same old animal, potentially making it stronger and more clever, Conboy said.
“The key TGF-beta1 regulatory pathway became reset to its young signaling levels, which also reduced tissue inflammation, hence promoting a more favorable environment for stem cell signaling,” she said. “You can simultaneously improve tissue repair and maintenance repair in completely different organs, muscle and brain.”
The researchers noted that this is only a first step toward a therapy, since other biochemical cues also regulate adult stem cell activity. Schaffer and Conboy’s research groups are now collaborating on a multi-pronged approach in which modulation of two key biochemical regulators might lead to safe restoration of stem cell responses in multiple aged and pathological tissues.
“The challenge ahead is to carefully retune the various signaling pathways in the stem cell environment, using a small number of chemicals, so that we end up recalibrating the environment to be youth-like,” Conboy said. “Dosage is going to be the key to rejuvenating the stem cell environment.”
Other co-authors of the paper are former graduate student Hanadie Yousef, now at Stanford University; and Michael Conboy, Adam Morgenthaler, Christina Schlesinger, Lukasz Bugaj, Preeti Paliwal and Christopher Greer of UC Berkeley’s bioengineering department and QB3.
The work was supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health, California Institute for Regenerative Medicine and a Rogers Family Foundation Bridging-the-Gap Award.
RELATED INFORMATION
- Systemic attenuation of the TGF-β pathway by a single drug simultaneously rejuvenates hippocampal neurogenesis and myogenesis in the same old mammal (Oncotarget)
- Bioengineers reprogram muscles to combat degeneration (2011)
- Scientists discover clues to what makes human muscle age (2009)
- Old muscle gets new pep in UC Berkeley stem cell study (2008)
- Rejuvenation of aged progenitor cells by exposure to a young systemic environment (Nature 2005)
Cryonics Scientifically Proven To Work In Model Organism
By Louie Helm | on May 23 | 8 Comments
Ever since cryonics was first conceived of 50 years ago, people have been waiting for scientific proof that it might actually work. Sure, scientists have been able to indefinitely cryopreserve human embryos for the past 30 years. But what about something with memories and an identity?
Researchers have never proven they could revive an organism with its mind intact… until now:
“Memory Retention in C. Elegans Demonstrated Following Cryropreservation”
From the Abstract:
Can memory be retained after cryopreservation? […] Our results in testing memory retention after cryopreservation show that the mechanisms that regulate the odorant imprinting (a form of long-term memory) in C. elegans have not been modified by the process of vitrification or by slow freezing.
That’s amazing! Skeptics previous had room to complain that there was no scientific proof that memories or identity could survive cryonics. But that room is gone.
It’s the result I expected. But it’s still fantastic to see this experiment carried out and published.
Of course, not all studies check out. And when I first got my hands on the full journal article… I was a bit worried. In my experience, most studies, especially exciting studies, are some combination of: poorly designed, poorly controlled, under-powered, and subsequently mined for spurious “significant” results.
But my skepticism quickly turned to delight: Experimental endpoints were well-defined prior to measurement. Animal handling was done according to well-establish review-article documented methods. Materials were specified in enough detail to allow for widespread replication. A reported sub-result in the study on the survivability advantages of the SafeSpeed fast freezing/thawing method provides valuable replication of another exciting result that would have been scientifically notable even on its own. Appendices show how robust the measurements really were. It’s as though the researchers knew the standard complaints of science journalists and actually bothered to spend the extra hour or two planning a good study. So their results went from “standard and terrible” to “utterly world-class”. I know I keep telling scientists they should design and carry out their studies correctly. But it’s still breathtaking to see it done, even once.
The nematodes in this study clearly remembered what they learned prior to cryopreservation. The SafeSpeed fast freezing/thawing allowed for ~100% survivability. And the nematodes were cryopreserved for a full 2 weeks in the middle of their life. By rough analogy, this would be like cryopreserving a 35 year old human for 65 years, and then watching them be revived unharmed with all their memories and going on to live another 35 years. You know, something that would allow a human to live further into the future than anyone, ever in history.
Additionally, several experts in the field who I heard back from agreed that this was a “quite well-designed and well-executed study, and the results leave little doubt that long-term memory, at least as represented by olfactory imprinting in C. elegans, survives freezing with no detectable impairment.” They also felt similarly to me in the sense that even though “it’s an expected result”, it was still “good to see it in a journal publication”.
So scientists have proven that minds can be cryopreserved and successfully revived — with their memories intact. It’s been peer-reviewed and published in a good journal. And experts from the field who weren’t involved in the study agree the result looks impressive.
It may have only been nematodes, but it’s still a big deal.
Cryonics just went from something you could believe in based on a series of good hand-wavy arguments about how ice damage and protein cross-linking aren’t really that bad (plus it would take magic for all of your memories to be instantly erased the second your heart stops beating)… to something you can believe in because science demonstrates that it works. That’s a serious upgrade. I’m definitely pleased to see cryonics crossing over from scientific theory to scientific fact.